Why is statistics difficult?

Imagine you are somewhere on a road that you have never been on before. Picture it. It’s peaceful and calm. A car comes down the road. As it gets to a corner, the driver appears to lose control, and the car crashes into a wall. Fortunately the driver is OK, but they can’t recall what happened.

Let’s think about what you experienced. The car crash might involve a number of variables an investigator would be interested in.

• How fast was the car going? Where were the brakes applied?
• Look on the road. Get out a tape measure. How long was the skid before the car finally stopped?
• How big and heavy was the car? How loud was the bang when the car crashed?

These are all physical variables. We are used to thinking about the world in terms of these kinds of variables: velocity, position, length, volume and mass. They are tangible: we can see and touch them, and we have physical equipment that helps us measure them.

Coping with imperfect data

Introduction

One of the challenges for corpus linguists is that many of the distinctions that we wish to make are either not annotated in a corpus at all or, if they are represented in the annotation, unreliably annotated. This issue frequently arises in corpora to which an algorithm has been applied, but where the results have not been checked by linguists, a situation which is unavoidable with mega-corpora. However, this is a general problem. We would always recommend that cases be reviewed for accuracy of annotation.

A version of this issue also arises when checking for the possibility of alternation, that is, to ensure that items of Type A can be replaced by Type B items, and vice-versa. An example might be epistemic modal shall vs. will. Most corpora, including richly-annotated corpora such as ICE-GB and DCPSE, do not include modal semantics in their annotation scheme. In such cases the issue is not that the annotation is “imperfect”, rather that our experiment relies on a presumption that the speaker has the choice of either type at any observed point (see Aarts et al. 2013), but that choice is conditioned by the semantic content of the utterance.

Binomial → Normal → Wilson

Introduction

One of the questions that keeps coming up with students is the following.

What does the Wilson score interval represent, and how does it encapsulate the right way to calculate a confidence interval on an observed Binomial proportion?

In this blog post I will attempt to explain, in a series of hopefully simple steps, how we get from the Binomial distribution to the Wilson score interval. I have written about this in a more ‘academic’ style elsewhere, but I haven’t spelled it out in a blog post.